babylonia

Babylonian Literature

A creation story known by its first words as Enuma Elish, meaning "when above" was recited on the fourth day of Babylon's New Year's Festival held annually at the beginning of spring. Its seven tablets are almost complete and reveal a Babylonian cosmogony still influenced by the Sumerians but clearly new in its assertion of the new god Marduk.
This epic began on high when nothing existed but Apsu, Tiamat, and their son Mummu. These parents brought forth Lahmu and his sister Lahamu and then Anshar and his sister Kishar. The latter pair surpassed the previous in stature and gave birth to Anu the sky-god, who engendered Nudimmud, also known as Enki or Ea, a god of wisdom. The younger gods were noisy and rambunctious, disturbing the rest of their grandparents, Apsu and Tiamat. Unable to sleep Apsu wanted to destroy them. Tiamat cried out in anguish, but Mummu agreed with Apsu.
Ea understood everything, and using magic he caused Apsu to sleep so that he could remove his crown and splendor. Then Ea killed the subdued Apsu, locked up Mummu, and established his abode on Apsu with his wife Damkina. She gave birth to Marduk, whom Ea made equal to the gods. Clothed with the rays of ten gods, Marduk was powerful and majestic.
Anu created four winds, which caused waves and disturbed Tiamat, upset at hearing that Apsu was slain. Tiamat was restless and put Kingu in charge of an army of gods to avenge Apsu. When Ea heard of it, he went to his grandfather Anshar, who told him to go to battle. In the destroyed portion of the text apparently Ea failed. So Anshar turned to his son Anu, advising him to speak to Tiamat; but perceiving her plans, he had to turn back. Then Anshar, the father of the gods, told the assembly that the valiant Marduk would be the avenger of his father, Ea, who called Marduk into his private room and told him the plan of his heart.
Marduk assured Anshar that he would trample on the neck of Tiamat and asked him to convene the assembly of gods to proclaim his new supremacy. Anshar sent Kaka to Lahmu and Lahamu to bring the gods to him for a banquet. Having enjoyed the food and swelled with wine, they declared that Marduk's destiny was unequaled and his commands not to be changed, giving him kingship over the whole universe. They told him to preserve the life of those who trust in him but not those who espouse evil. Marduk demonstrated his new power by destroying a garment and restoring it in front of them by the power of his word. Rejoicing, they did homage to Marduk as their king, saying, "Go and cut off the life of Tiamat."¹⁶
Taking the weapons they gave him, Marduk harnessed his terrible storm chariot and went to challenge Tiamat to single combat. He enmeshed her in his net; when she opened her mouth, he drove in the evil wind, which distended her belly. Then he shot an arrow, which split her heart. When her life was destroyed, he stood on her carcass. Marduk imprisoned her followers and broke their weapons. Then binding Kingu and taking from him the tablet of destinies, Marduk put his seal on it and fastened it on his breast. He split Tiamat into two parts, half in place as the earth and half for a roof as the sky. He crossed the heavens, and as the counterpart of Apsu he established Esharra, where Anu, Enlil, and Ea could live.
Marduk created stations for the great gods, setting up the stars in the signs of the zodiac, dividing the year into twelve months with three constellations in each. He caused the moon to shine as the ornament of the night. He set up humans so that they could serve the gods. Marduk assembled the gods, and they decided to punish Kingu for having caused the revolt. With his blood they created humanity, imposing services to set the gods free. For a sanctuary they made Babylon. Then they all enjoyed a banquet with music and praised the fifty names of the divine Marduk.
This war of the gods is a terrible projection of human strife. The younger generation of gods is favored to justify Babylon's having overthrown those who came before. Once again woman is trampled under the foot of male dominance, Tiamat in this case symbolizing the primordial chaos, which has been overcome by divine power. This violent poem was surely used to foster Babylonian patriotism and the worship of their god Marduk.
The origin of astrology is indicated by the twelve signs of the zodiac plus the additional thirty-six constellations, which represent the ten-degree decanates, making a total of forty-eight constellations, which have been passed on to this day as the basis of astrology. The Sumerians had been observing omens for centuries and comparing human experience to their astronomical observations from their ziqqurats. Adding the sun and moon to the five planets they observed, the number seven became significant, and they were used for the days of the week.
The planet Venus was represented by Ishtar, whose positive attributes are praised in a hymn from about 1600 BC which contains the following lines:

Ishtar is clothed with pleasure and love.
She is laden with vitality, charm, and voluptuousness.
In lips she is sweet; life is in her mouth.
At her appearance rejoicing becomes full.
She is glorious; veils are thrown over her head.
Her figure is beautiful; her eyes are brilliant.
The goddess - with her there is counsel.
The fate of everything she holds in her hand.
At her glance there is created joy,
power, magnificence, the protecting deity and guardian spirit.
She dwells in, she pays heed to compassion and friendliness.
Besides, agreeableness she truly possesses.
Be it slave, unattached girl, or mother, she preserves her.
One calls on her; among women one names her name.¹⁷

The story of Adapa tells how Ea creates a sage, to whom he gives the divine plan but not eternal life. Adapa is not only the best priest in Eridu but their baker and fisherman as well. Once during a new moon Adapa's boat is blown by the south wind which sends him overboard. Adapa vows to break the wing of the south wind, and for seven days the wind does not blow.
The lord Anu hears about this and orders Adapa to be brought before him. Ea, knowing the ways of heaven, predicts how he will be met by Tammuz and Gizzida, whom he can win over by noting that two gods have disappeared from the land, pleasing them so that they will cause Anu to favor him. When Adapa is offered the bread and water of death, Ea advises him not to eat nor drink, though he has to wear the garment and anoint himself with the oil they offer him.
When Adapa arrives in heaven and is greeted by Tammuz and Gizzida, he flatters them by noting that two gods seem to be missing on Earth. King Anu asks Adapa why he broke the south wind’s wing and is told by him how the wind submerged him while he was fishing so that in anger he cursed it. Speaking up, Tammuz and Gizzida put in a good word for him. Anu wonders why Ea shared the plan of heaven and Earth with Adapa, but he orders that the bread and water of life be brought to him along with a garment and oil. However, Adapa does not eat nor drink but puts on the garment and anoints himself with the oil, explaining to Anu when asked why that Ea has so commanded him. Then Anu orders him to be taken away and returned to his Earth, laughing at Ea for making his commands exceed those of Anu.
The fragmentary ending indicates that in this way Adapa brought humanity ill and disease upon their bodies, though the goddess of healing would allay them. This ironic story laments how an opportunity to gain eternal life was missed by following the advice of a god, who was not the god who had eternal life to give.
An ancient Akkadian text gives some counsels of wisdom which include religious exhortations to worship your god every day, give offerings, pray, and supplicate so that you will be in harmony with your god. Let us conclude this section then with a few of its wise remarks.

Let your mouth be restrained and your speech guarded;
That is a man's pride - let what you say be very precious.
Let insolence and blasphemy be an abomination for you;
a talebearer is looked down upon....
Do not return evil to your adversary;
requite with kindness the one who does evil to you;
maintain justice for your enemy;
be friendly to your enemy....
Give food to eat, beer to drink;
grant what is requested; provide for and treat with honor.
At this one's god takes pleasure.
It is pleasing to Shamash, who will repay him with favor.
Do good things; be kind all your days.¹⁸